by Dean Woods with Rupert Guiness
Physiology & Psychology
Physiology and psychology are two major ingredients in racing. Everyone has varying levels of strengths and weaknesses in both departments. While there are certainly born champions – people who possess great physical advantages – there are also many cyclists who have become winners because of their mental prowess.
Physiology
What Type of Cyclist are you?
There are physical limits to what type of cyclist you can be. Some riders are better suited as sprinters, while others make great time-triallists, stage racers or even climbers. However, this is an equation very much dependent on the heart and muscle make-up in the body. There aren't any set rules and although there are similarities in body types among the different disciplines, there are also exceptions.
Most sprinters tend to have stockier upper and lower bodies which equip them for the sudden bursts and push-and-shove accelerations of mass sprints. And pure climbers – that is, those riders who excel in the mountains – often have skinny torsos and almost spindly legs. Their physique – while often leaving them susceptible to being dropped on the flat where they have little resistance to winds ( unlike bigger riders) – is perfect for the mountains, where their power-to-weight ratio is superior to other riders.
Then there are those riders who are tall, strong and heavy and who may not have the agility to sprint or climb. They can be valuable as either time-triallists, team riders or 'domestiques' where sheer strength is necessary for chasing attacks, for riding in front of their leader to protect him/her from energy-sapping winds and to lead him or her out for the sprints or attacks.
The best all-rounders, like those who win races such as the Tour de France, are usually born with a valuable combination of strength and nimbleness which suits them in every domain – on the flat, in time trials and in the mountains. Such are the rare qualities of a Tour champion – and the reason why only a very few can win.
Whether a cyclist is a natural sprinter or someone suited for longer endurance events depends on the ratio of slow and fast-twitch muscle fibres. Muscles are an amalgamation of long fibres made of cells. They are located in the body in pairs. Each muscle which produces one motion with a pulling effect has a 'twin' which produces the opposite motion. So, for any movement to be made, one muscle must contract while the other relaxes. There are two types of muscle fibres in the body – fast and slow-twitch.
Fast-twitch Muscle Fibres
These are more suited for high-speed, short-duration anaerobic exertions like sprinting. Sprint cyclists have a greater ratio of fast-twitch muscle fibres to slow-twitch ones. They are fuelled on glucose, which produces a high degree of lactic acid build-up in a sprint, giving pain.
Muscle Fibres
Biochemical characteristics of fast and slow-twitch muscle fibres
|
Fast
|
Slow
|
|
Glycogen content
|
high
|
low
|
|
Glycotic enzyme levels
|
high
|
low
|
|
Contraction speed
|
high
|
low
|
|
Endurance level
|
low
|
high
|
|
Capillary density
|
low
|
high
|
|
Oxidative enzyme levels
|
low
|
high
|
|
Fat content
|
low
|
high
|
|
Myoglobin content
|
low
|
high
|
Slow-twitch Muscle Fibres
There is less power and speed in slow-twitch muscle fibres. However, they are capable of greater endurance.
They also use oxygen more efficiently. So the greater the efficiency of oxygen use, the more fuel is burned and so there will be less build-up of lactic acid. Slow-twitch actions may increase the production of carbon dioxide, but such a waste product is less painful than lactic waste (see chart above).
The Three Energy Systems
Muscle contraction is the process which creates movement. To attain and keep it, energy is needed. Energy is provided by the breakdown of a substance called adenosine triphosphate (A TP), of which there are three main sources:
1. Anaerobic Alactic ATP: the first 10-second energy system
It is from this system that a cyclist gets the burst of energy necessary for high-speed or high-resistance actions; these can extend from 1 to 10 seconds. Examples of this include standing starts, sprints or sudden accelerations to attack or chase a break.
As with any form of activity, a warm-up is required beforehand to ensure that muscles are loose and not tight and therefore susceptible to injury. A warm-up also gets the blood going and the flow of oxygen moving. However, this energy system does not rely only on energy, but also on the stored energy supply of ATP
2. Anaerobic Lactic Acid: the 10 seconds to 2 minutes speed endurance energy system
This system is another anaerobic pathway (i.e. a system not requiring oxygen). At later stages when there is not enough oxygen for the aerobic system, it is a system which contributes to performance.
The system relies on carbohydrate fuel and is the source of lactic acid. It is a system more associated with fast than with slow-twitch muscle fibres and supplies energy for hard efforts of between 10 seconds to 2 minutes.
The presence of lactic acid is what makes a tider's legs feel swollen and heavy. It also slows you down the more it builds up. You can develop your tolerance to lactic acid, although this requires much training at petiods where this system is used.
3. Aerobic: the endurance oxygen energy system
This is a system reliant on oxygen which feeds off carbohydrate and fat. The heart and lungs are vital in this system as it is through them that the blood carrying oxygen passes en route to fuelling the muscle cells.
You would use this system in efforts lasting from 30 seconds onwards, as well as in the recovery process after an effort.
It's also a system which call be developed. A minimum of 30 minutes ofhigh- intensity exercise is needed to improve the muscle's energy production capacity and the oxygen delivery system.
The following chart provides a graphic explanation of the conversion time between these three energy systems duting a workout.
There are two key moments in the energy shift: after 10 seconds the anaerobic alactic system shifts much of its energy demands to the anaerobic lactic system; after 2 minutes the demands shift heavily from the lactic anaerobic system to the aerobic system.
Energy Systems
Approximate per cent contributions of energy systems
Work Time
Maximal Effort |
Alactic
Anaerobic |
Lactic
Anaerobic |
Aerobic |
|
5 sec
|
85 |
10 |
5 |
|
10 sec
|
50 |
35 |
15 |
|
30 sec
|
15 |
65 |
20 |
|
1 min
|
8 |
62 |
30 |
|
2 min
|
4 |
46 |
50 |
|
4 min
|
2 |
28 |
70 |
|
10 min
|
1 |
9 |
90 |
|
30 min
|
negligible |
5 |
95 |
|
1 hour
|
negligible |
2 |
98 |
| 2 hours |
negligible |
1 |
99 |
The Vital Capacities
The three key elements of the respiratory system are the lungs, heart and blood.
Training programmes rely heavily on the efficient functioning of these capacities. Respiratory and cardiovascular levels improve when the bloodstream can better move its nutrients to the lungs and heart.
The lungs diffuse oxygen taken from inhaled air to the blood. They expel carbon dioxide when you exhale.
The measurement of efficient oxygen supply to the muscles is called VOz max. It is measured in millilitres of oxygen per minute per kilogram of body weight ( or cubic inches of oxygen per minute per pound) and is the rate at which oxygen is used by the body during peak efforts. Maximum effort in training will increase a rider's VOz max. level.
Vital capacity – the volume of air which passes through the lungs during maximum inhalation and exhalation – can only be marginally conditioned through training. However, the greatest advantage of training here is that it enables you to make efficient use of your existing capacity.
An average healthy adult during rest may inhale between 6 to 8 litres (366 to 488 cubic inches) of air per minute, from which 0.3 litres (18.3 cubic inches) of oxygen may be extracted. A fit cyclist can inhale between 120 to 180 litres (7323 to 10984 cubic inches) of air per minute, taking in more than 5 litres (305 cubic inches) of oxygen from the effort.
The heart transports blood into the system and boosts the cyclist's fuel supply. The bigger the heart, the better.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pushed out of the heart and into the system in a set period of time. It is measured in litres (or cubic inches) per minute.
Training has a great effect on heart rates. Well-conditioned cyclists generally have lower pulse rates when resting. And they have higher stroke volumes – that is, the amount of blood transported into the system per heart beat.
Long-distance training helps condition the heart, while interval work helps the heart to adapt to maximum stroke volume.
It's worth remembering, though, that the heart can only pump what blood it has. Hence the muscles, when contracted and relaxed alternately, act as a pumping system to send blood back into the heart. When cycling, you should pay attention to muscle relaxation and contraction.
The blood is a common link between many components in the body and it provides two key services: firstly, it delivers oxygen, glucose and other nutrients to the system and removes carbon dioxide and lactic acid for either reconstruction or disposal from the body; secondly, blood helps to avert chemical changes in the tissues when acid wastes are produced by metabolic activity.
However, blood itself undergoes several changes during heavy training. There are increases in volume of the amount pumped by the heart each minute and in haemoglobin which exists in red blood cells carrying the oxygen. And blood can also undergo flow changes from unused muscles to active ones.
Developing the Three Systems
The best way to develop the three systems is with interval training. This is a series of hard efforts of varying duration, interspersed with rest or recovery periods. These spells can be specifically designed to develop one or more of the systems.
During a recovery spell, the depleted supply of A TP is replenished by the aerobic system. A proportion of oxygen debt is restored and this means that ATP will be available again as an energy source for the next hard effort. This also means that the lactic acid system will be less taxed than if a rider were to tackle a continuous effort with no relief. The price to pay is that the intensity of work can be greater.
Nobody is the Same
No cyclist is the same.
Age, sex, energy capacity, strength, style and psychological levels all vary, but what makes cyclists truly different from each other is their capacity to meet training demands.
Age
The element of age is an important factor. Age group competition has grown rapidly in recent years with limits in both youth and veteran categories expanding.
These are the questions to consider when you're planning a training or racing programme:
- To what extent is competition harrnful mentally and physically to youngsters and older veterans'
- Are long rides risky for young and old cyclists'
- In what way should old and young cyclists plan for competition'
A key to the above is to make sure a juvenile or veteran has been given medical approval to compete. They should also have an experienced trainer or coach working with them to nurture their skills and develop progressive training regimes. And the chosen goals need to be achievable and realistic for each age group.
In most cases, younger and older cyclists are able to adapt to the training regimes of mature cyclists. Everyone can reach their maximum physical potential, although you need to understand that everyone has varying levels of inherited abilities.
Biological Development
An important factor in a youngster's cycling career hinges on the difference between their biological and chronological ages – that is, the difference between their level of functional ability compared to their actual age. For example, it is not uncommon to see a 14-year-old with the physical ability of a 16-year-old. However, it's worth remembering that if a young rider is an early developer with limited ability, they will often lose the advantage they have when their chronological age reaches their biological age. Many junior and juvenile champions fall into this category.
The challenge facing early developers is to conftont equal competition when they get older. Their initial successes are often a result of biological advantages and not just hard training, as will necessarily be the case when they are older. Hence, while some are labelled future champions, the very same riders may retire early when the challenges become too great.
It is generally accepted that the functions of a person's physical make-up will improve or develop until maturity. There is then a plateau of ability before the aging process inevitably chips away ones level of skill. Increased physical activity such as cycling does slow down the process. What does vary is the age at which maturity arrives. For agility, 12 is the age when this is at its peak. There is a slight amount of development until 14, but at a much diminished rate.
Strength is a factor which depends on body weight. However, its level generally reaches 80% of an adult's maximum at 16 years of age for males and 14 years for females. Peak strength is usually reached at 20 for females and 20 to 30 for males. Thereafter, as long as physical activity is regular, the muscle mass you have will stay with you through the middle years before degenerating after approximately 45 years of age.
A sensitive issue with strength development in youngsters is the use of weights. For a long time weights were discouraged for fear they would injure and hinder the natural growth process. While some animal studies have reportedly shown that heavy resistance exercise can help development, the effects on youngsters have not yet been accurately measured.
So have a cautious and conservative outlook on this aspect of training until proper research has been carried out. Certainly, heavy weight-training should not be carried out before puberty. And, at the other end of the age spectrum, older people should avoid isometric exercises because they increase blood pressure.
Power is something one attains very quickly. Yet it hinges greatly on the natural speed a cyclist has too. This latter element is affected by the central nervous system which reaches peak development at 14 years of age. Once again, the age process slows down speed, although active people will lose their speeds more slowly than non-active people. It has even been suggested that the aging process itself can be slowed down in people who keep their nerve cells as active as possible – one reason to keep active throughout your life!
The crucial age for deciding on whether or not to focus on sports like cycling which require reaction speed and movement frequency is 14. And in cycling, a good indicator of one's potential is pedalling speed. Regular testing of pedalling speed should be carried out up to the ages of 16 and 17.
Women
Female responses to training are more or less the same as those of a male's. This is because cellular mechanisms influencing the physiological and biological responses to cycling are the same in both sexes.
Yet there are some significant differences in male/female make-up which influence respective performances:
Body-size composition: compared to an adult male, a female of the same age is approximately 7 to 10 centimetres (2.75 to 4 inches) shorter, 11 to 13 kilograms (24 to 29 pounds) lighter, has an average 25% body-fat reading (compared to 7% to 15% in males) and has 18 to 20 kilograms (40 to 44 pounds) less fat-free weight.
Energy systems: most research in this area has been on the aerobic system. With the anaerobic alactic system, the muscular concentration of ATP is the same per unit of muscle. Yet anaerobic lactic systems differ. After an all-out effort a woman's build-up of lactic acid is generally lower than a male's, which indicates that she is using her oxygen system more efficiently. As for the aerobic system, while the differences are minimal in youth, they become pronounced between 20 and 30 years of age when body sizes and compositions are vastly different.
Generally, a woman's VO2 max. is smaller than a man's. That's because women usually have smaller heart and blood volumes and less haemoglobin than men.
For example, tests in swimming where male and female weight differences are reduced by the buoyancy from water have shown that a female's endurance is much closer to a male's. Yet in cycling, where body weight determines the degree of work and effort, a woman's VO2 max. will be far less because she has greater natural body-fat levels and therefore an extra load to carry.
Muscle strength: a woman's is approximately two-thirds of a man's, although the degree of difference varies between upper and lower bodies. There is less strength difference in the legs than in the arms. Leg strength is actually the same when compared to body sizes in women and men. And when compared to lean body weight, female leg strength is even greater. Studies have even revealed that strength – when compared to muscle size – is equal for both sexes. However, as males have larger muscle groups than females, the actual force released by males is greater.
With weight training a female can make increases in strength by up to 44%, although as women have lower testosterone levels than men, their already diminished muscle mass (compared to that of a man) should not increase.
Providing women follow a controlled and well-supervised programme, the significant changes they should experience are:
- minimal change in body weight;
- marked loss of relative and absolute body fat;
- gain in lean body weight.
Menstruation: for female cyclists the menstrual cycle can lead to irritability, anxiety and bouts of mental depression which can affect performance.
Studies have shown that some cyclists experienced poorer standards of competition and training just before and during menstruation. Many of these were cyclists in endurance events. The best results, on the other hand, were recorded up to 15 days after a period.
This can lead to two conclusions:
- it is better to undertake heavy training after the menstrual cycle;
- wherever possible, the post-menstrual cycle should correspond with a major competition date.
It is recommended, however, that you see a qualified doctor to discuss your particular needs with regard to competition and training.
Psychology
A cyclist may have all the equipment, back-up support and be incredibly fit, but without the right psychological balance, he or she won't get very far.
There are three key components to achieving this balance – goal-setting, self-confidence and overcoming competitive anxiety.
Goal-setting
Having a goal is the key to any cyclist's motivation, whether it is to win a world title, a national championship, to finish a randonnee or simply to have a good time. Without goals we would not have the urge to mount a bicycle and pedal.
However, what must not be ignored is the need to set achievable goals. It is better to set a goal, reach it and then progress to another one than to fail in the enterprise. Unrealistic goals can lead to disappointment, frustration and a loss of self-respect and confidence.
This might sound like a basic and obvious principle to follow but, rest assured, sport is full of cautionary tales of people who have demanded too much of themselves too soon.
There are certain guidelines to follow when setting a goal. Make sure your goals are:
- achievable;
- prioritised so that there are no clashes with other aspects of your life;
- a way of improving performance;
- measurable;
- made with a view to your long-term ambitions and current sporting, personal and professional circumstances;
- made with the competition and challenges facing you so the final result can be used as a performance reference;
- accepted by all parties concerned – yourself, your coach, your team.
Providing you've been conscientious in training, a training log will also act as a handy morale-boosting tool prior to an event. By taking a regular look back at goals which have been achieved – day-to-day and week-to-week – a cyclist will feel the sense of confidence which comes from well-organised preparation. Ideally, the motivation to do justice to the preparation with a good performance will result.
Self-confidence
Your opinion of yourself – your self-image – is created through everyday experience and is influenced by the opinions of those around you – your coach, parents, fellow cyclists, etc. Self-confidencecan grow with maturity, but a way of speeding up the process is to develop your powers of positive thinking.
Positive Thinking
Everyone loves to win, but the greatest challenge may be to come to terms with losing. This may be disappointing, but there is a positive side to any loss. Foremost is that you can learn from your mistakes and improve the next time. If that occurs, your satisfaction will be even greater.
Another element to building self-confidence is the ability to be flexible in your thinking. You may have to cope with circumstances beyond your control. These can include punctures and other mechanical malfunctions, a crash caused by sudden gusts of winds, spilled diesel on the road or dangerous bike handling by another rider.
Even these examples of bad luck can be confronted positively. Instead of giving up, make a quick mental assessment of what has happened. You may have to redefine your goals, but at least you have a positive – challenge to tackle rather than taking a defeatist way out.
Overcoming Competitive Anxiety
Most people feel fear, apprehension and tension in a competitive environment. Different people react differently to stress. You can either fight it or let it beat you. Positive thinking should help to combat anxiety , but you should also be aware of an all-too-common element in sport- psychological sabotage. Here, too, there are techniques you can use to overcome the anxiety it causes.
Psychological Sabotage
The aim of this 'mind game' is for a cyclist to psychologically unsettle a rival before competition. This might come in the form of apparently innocent remarks about personal appearance or equipment which can instill last-minute self-doubt. Or it could be attention-seeking body language which may distract the person's mental focus on the coming event.
The best way to tackle this form of sabotage is to develop a knack of anticipation. Learn to identify such actions and words for what they are. Come the day of a major competition, you should be at the peak of your training and confident and strong enough to be able to fend off such psychological attacks.
Visualisation
This is another measure which will fortify your defence before a race. It will give you greater self-assurance and help to 'psych' you up.
By running the coming event – or its crucial parts – through your mind beforehand, your subconscious will be activated to react instinctively when the actual moment arrives. Naturally, you should visualise the race positively. Try to imagine making a winning break or sprint and climbing or descending with graceful speed in the company of the best in the pack.
Like all aspects of cycling – or any sport – visualisation requires time to develop its effectiveness. If you've never tried it, you may find yourself put off by the ego-boosting involved. However, try to recognise its purpose, which is as a form of mental rehearsal of the coming event and a buffer to the threat of psychological needling.
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